Glossary of Terms

A

abortion the deliberate termination of pregnancy

absolute poverty a deprivation of resources that is life-threatening

acculturation the transmission of culture from one generation to the next

achieved status a social position that a person assumes voluntarily and that reflects a significant measure of personal ability and choice

acid rain rain containing sulfuric and nitric acids

acting crowd Herbert Blumer’s term for an excited group that collectively moves toward a goal

activity theory the view that satisfaction during old age is related to a person’s level and quality of activity

age cohort a group of people born at roughly the same time who pass through the life course together

age stratification the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and privileges among people at different stages in the life course

ageism prejudice, discrimination, and hostility directed against people because of their age; can be directed against any age group, including youth

agency individual or collective actions upon social structures and circumstances

agent provocateur someone who joins a group in order to spy on it and to sabotage it by provoking its members to commit illegal acts

agents of socialization people or groups that affect our self-concept, attitudes, or other orientations toward life

age-sex pyramid a graphic representation of the age and sex of a population

aggregate individuals who temporarily share the same physical space but do not see themselves as belonging together

agriculture large-scale cultivation using plows harnessed to animals or more powerful energy sources

alienation Marx’s term for workers’ lack of connection to the product of their labour; caused by their being assigned repetitive tasks on a small part of a product. Also refers genrally to the experience of isolation resulting from powerlessness

alterative social movement a social movement that seeks to alter only particular aspects of people

anarchy a condition of lawlessness or political disorder caused by the absence or collapse of governmental authority

animal culture learned, shared behaviour among animals

animism the belief that all objects in the world have spirits, some of which are dangerous and must be outwitted

anomie Durkheim’s term for a condition of society in which people become detached, cut loose from the norms that usually guide their behaviour

anticipatory socialization social learning directed towards gaining a desired position

anti-Semitism prejudice, discrimination, and persecution directed against Jews

appearance how an individual looks when playing a role

applied sociology the use of sociology to solve problems — from the micro level of family relationships to the macro level of crime and pollution

ascribed status a social position that someone receives at birth or assumes involuntarily later in life

asexuality no sexual attraction to people of either sex

assimilation the process by which minorities gradually adopt patterns of the dominant culture

authoritarian leader a leader who leads by giving orders

authoritarian personality Theodor Adorno’s term for people who are prejudiced and rank high on scales of conformity, intolerance, insecurity, respect for authority, and submissiveness to superiors

authoritarianism a political system that denies popular participation in government

authority power that people accept as rightly exercised over them; also called legitimate power

B

back stage where people rest from their performances, discuss their presentations, and plan future performances

background assumptions deeply embedded common understandings, or basic roles, concerning our view of the world and of how people ought to act

barter the direct exchange of one item for another

basic demographic equation growth rate = births – deaths + net migration

basic sociology see pure or basic sociology

beliefs specific statements that people hold to be true

bilateral (system of descent) a system of reckoning descent that counts both the mother’s and the father’s side

bilateral descent a system tracing kinship through both men and women

bisexuality sexual attraction to people of both sexes

blended family a family whose members were once part of other families

blue-collar occupation lower-prestige work that involves mostly manual labour

bourgeoisie Karl Marx’s term for capitalists, those who own the means to produce wealth

bureaucracy a formal organization with a hierarchy of authority; a clear division of labour; emphasis on written rules, communications, and records; and impersonality of positions

bureaucratic inertia the tendency of bureaucratic organizations to perpetuate themselves

bureaucratic ritualism a preoccupation with rules and regulations to the point of thwarting an organization’s goals

C

capitalism an economic system characterized by the private ownership of the means of production, the pursuit of profit, and market competition; the investment of capital with the goal of producing profits

capitalist one who owns a factory or other productive enterprise in pursuit of profits

capitalist class the wealthy who own the means of production and buy the labour of the working class

capitalist world economy the dominance of capitalism in the world along with the international interdependence that capitalism has created

caste system a form of social stratification in which one’s status is determined by birth and is lifelong

category people who have similar characteristics

causation if a change in one variable leads to a change in another variable, causation is said to exist

cause and effect a relationship in which we know that change in one (independent) variable causes change in another (dependent) variable

Census Agglomerations (CAs) towns and surrounding areas where more than 10 000 people live in the urban core

Census Metropolitan Areas (CMAs) cities and surrounding areas where more than 100 000 people live in the urban core

charisma extraordinary personal qualities that can turn an audience into followers

charismatic authority power legitimized through extraordinary personal abilities that inspire devotion and obedience

charismatic leader an individual who inspires people because he or she seems to have extraordinary qualities

church according to Durkheim, one of the three essential elements of religion — a moral community of believers or a large, highly organized group with formal, sedate worship services and little emphasis on personal conversion

citizenship the concept that birth (and residence) in a country impart basic rights

city a place in which a large number of people are permanently based and do not produce their own food

city-state an independent city whose power radiates outward, bringing the adjacent area under its rule

civil religion a quasi-religious loyalty binding individuals in a basically secular society

clan an extended network of relatives

clan system a form of social stratification in which individuals receive their social standing through belonging to an extended network of relatives

class conflict antagonism between entire classes over the distribution of wealth and power in society. Karl Marx’s term for the struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie

class consciousness the recognition by workers of their unity as a social class in opposition to capitalists and, ultimately, to capitalism itself. Karl Marx’s term for awareness of a common identity based on one’s position in the means of production

class society a capitalist society with pronounced social stratification

class system social stratification based on both birth and individual achievement

clearance rates the rate at which police solve crimes

clique a cluster of people within a larger group who choose to interact with one another; an internal faction

closed-ended questions questions followed by a list of possible answers to be selected by the respondent

coalition government a government in which a country’s largest political party aligns itself with one or more smaller parties

coalition the alignment of some members of a group against others

coercion power that people do not accept as rightly exercised over them; also called illegitimate power

cohabitation the sharing of a household by an unmarried couple

cohort a category of people with a common characteristic, usually their age

collective behaviour extraordinary activities carried out by groups of people; includes lynchings, rumours, panics, urban legends, and fads and fashions, usually in violation of established norms

collective mind Gustave LeBon’s term for the tendency of people in a crowd to feel, think, and act in extraordinary ways

collectivity a large number of people whose minimal interaction occurs in the absence of well-defined, conventional norms

colonialism the process by which some nations enrich themselves through political and economic control of other nations

colonization the process by which one nation takes over another nation, usually for the purpose of exploiting its labour and natural resources

common sense those things that “everyone knows” to be true

communism a hypothetical economic and political system in which all members of society are socially equal

community a place people identify with, where they sense that they belong and that others care what happens to them

compartmentalize to separate acts from feelings or attitudes

concept an abstract idea that represents some aspect of the world, inevitably in a somewhat simplified form

concrete operational stage Piaget’s term for the level of development in which individuals perceive causal connections in their surroundings

confederal union system of government in which the provinces have most of the powers and the central government has little authority

conflict theory a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of groups competing for scarce resources

conglomerates giant corporations composed of many smaller corporations

conservative bias the tendency of analysts to downplay evidence of historical change and to reject evidence of challenges to traditional social patterns

conspicuous consumption Thorstein Veblen’s term for a change from the Protestant ethic to an eagerness to show off wealth by the elaborate consumption of goods

contradictory class location Erik Wright’s term for a position in the class structure that generates contradictory interests

control holding constant all relevant variables except one in order to clearly see its effect

control group the group of subjects not exposed to the independent variable

convergence theory the view that as capitalist and socialist economic systems each adopt features of the other, a hybrid (or mixed) economic system will emerge

corporate capitalism the domination of the economic system by giant corporations

corporate crime the illegal actions of a corporation or people acting on its behalf

corporate culture the orientation that characterizes a corporate work setting

corporation an organization with a legal existence, including rights and liabilities, apart from those of its members

correlation a relationship by which two (or more) variables change together

correspondence principle the sociological principle that schools correspond to (or reflect) the social structure of society

cosmology teachings or ideas that provide a unified picture of the world

counterculture a group whose values, beliefs, and related behaviours place its members in opposition to the broader culture

credential society the use of diplomas and degrees to determine who is eligible for jobs, even though the diploma or degree may be irrelevant to the actual work

credentialism evaluating a person on the basis of educational degrees

credit card a device that allows its owner to purchase goods but to be billed later

crime the violation of norms a society formally enacts into criminal law

crimes against property (property crimes) crimes that involve theft of goods belonging to others

crimes against the person (violent crimes) crimes that involve violence or the threat of violence

criminal justice system the system of police, courts, and prisons set up to deal with people accused of having committed a crime

criminal recidivism subsequent offences committed by people previously convicted of crimes

critical sociology the study of society that focuses on the need for social change

crowd a temporary gathering of people who share a common focus of attention and who influence one another

crude birth rate the number of live births in a given year for every 1000 people in a population

crude death rate the number of deaths in a given year for every 1000 people in a population

cult a new or different religion, with few followers, whose teachings and practices put it at odds with the dominant culture and religion

cultural diffusion the spread of cultural characteristics from one group to another

cultural goals the legitimate objectives held out to the members of a society

cultural integration the close relationship among various elements of a cultural system

cultural lag the fact some cultural elements change more quickly than others, which may disrupt a cultural system

cultural levelling the process by which cultures become similar to one another, and especially by which Western industrial culture is imported and diffused into developing nations

cultural materialism (or cultural ecology) a theoretical paradigm that explores the relationship of human culture to the physical environment

cultural relativism the practice of evaluating any culture by its own standards

cultural transmission the process by which one generation passes culture on to the next

cultural universal a value, norm, or other cultural trait that is found in every group

culture the language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviours, and even material objects passed from one generation to the next

culture of poverty the assumption that the values and behaviours of the poor make them fundamentally different from other people, that these factors are largely responsible for their poverty, and that parents perpetuate poverty across generations by passing these characteristics on to their children

culture shock the personal disorientation accompanying exposure to an unfamiliar way of life

currency paper money

D

Davis-Moore thesis the assertion that social stratification has beneficial consequences for the operation of a society

debit card a device that allows its owner to charge purchases against his or her bank account

deductive logical thought reasoning that transforms general theory into specific hypotheses suitable for scientific testing

deferred gratification forgoing something in the present in the hope of achieving greater gains in the future

definition of the situation the way we look at matters in life; the way we define reality or some particular situation

degradation ceremony a term coined by Harold Garfinkel to describe an attempt to remake the self by stripping away an individual’s self-identity and stamping a new one in its place; a ritual designed to strip an individual of his or her identity as a group member — for example, a court martial or the defrocking of a priest

dehumanization the act or process of reducing people to objects that do not deserve the treatment accorded humans

democracy a system of government in which authority derives from the people; derived from two Greek words that translate literally as “power to the people”

democratic leader a leader who leads by trying to reach a consensus

democratic socialism a hybrid economic system in which capitalism is mixed with state ownership

demographic transition theory a thesis linking demographic changes to a society’s level of technological development

demographic variables the three factors that influence population growth: fertility, mortality, and net migration

demography the study of the size, composition, growth, and distribution of human populations

demonstration a public meeting, march, etc. for a political or moral purpose

denomination a church, independent of the state, that accepts religious pluralism

dependency ratio the number of paid workers required so that dependent individuals, usually seniors and children, can be adequately supported

dependency theory a model of economic and social development that explains global inequality in terms of the historical exploitation of poor societies by rich ones

dependent variable a factor that is changed by an independent variable

depersonalization dealing with people as though they were objects — in the case of medical care, as though patients were merely cases and diseases, not persons

deposit receipts a receipt stating that a certain amount of goods is on deposit in a warehouse or bank; the receipt is used as a form of money

descent the system by which members of a society trace kinship over generations

deterrence the attempt to discourage criminality through punishment

deviance the recognized violation of cultural norms

dictatorship a form of government in which power is seized by an individual

differential association Edwin Sutherland’s term to indicate that associating with some groups results in learning an “excess of definitions” of social deviance, and, by extension, in a greater likelihood that one will become socially deviant

diffusion the spread of invention or discovery from one area to another; identified by William Ogburn as the final of three processes of social change

direct democracy a form of democracy in which the eligible voters meet together to discuss issues and make their decisions

direct-fee system a health care system in which patients pay directly for the services of physicians and hospitals

disabling environment an environment harmful to health

discovery a new way of seeing reality; identified by William Ogburn as the second of three processes of social change

discrimination an act of unfair treatment directed against an individual or a group

disengagement theory the proposition that society enhances its orderly operation by disengaging people from positions of responsibility as they reach old age

divine right of kings the idea that the king’s authority comes directly from God

division of labour the splitting of a group’s or a society’s tasks into specialties

documents in its narrow sense, written sources that provide data; in its extended sense, archival material of any sort, including photographs, movies, and so on

dominant group the group with the most power, greatest privileges, and highest social status

downward social mobility movement down the social-class ladder

dramaturgical analysis an approach, pioneered by Erving Goffman, analyzing social life in terms of drama or the stage; also called dramaturgy

dual labour market workers split along racial, ethnic, gender, age, or any other lines; this split is exploited by owners to weaken the bargaining power of workers

dyad the smallest possible group, consisting of two people

E

eating disorder an intense form of dieting or other kind of weight control in order to become very thin

ecclesia (plural ecclesias) a religious group so integrated into the dominant culture that it is difficult to tell where the one begins and the other leaves off; also referred to as state religion

ecologically sustainable culture a way of life that meets the needs of the present generation without threatening the environmental legacy of future generations

ecology the study of the interaction of living organisms and the natural environment

economy the social institution that organizes a society’s production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services

ecosystem a system composed of the interaction of all living organisms and their natural environment

education the social institution guiding a society’s transmission of knowledge — including basic facts, job skills, and cultural norms and values — to its members

egalitarian authority more or less equally divided between people or groups, for example, between husband and wife in a family

ego Freud’s term for a person’s conscious attempts to balance the pleasure‑seeking drives of the human organism and the demands of society

electronic community individuals who more or less regularly interact with one another on the Internet

electronic primary group individuals who regularly interact with one another on the Internet, who see themselves as a group, and who develop close ties with one another

emergent norms Ralph Turner’s and Lewis Killian’s term for the development of new norms to cope with a new situation, especially among crowds

empirical evidence information we can verify with our senses

endogamy marriage between people of the same social category

environmental deficit profound and negative long-term harm to the natural environment caused by humanity’s focus on short-term material affluence

environmental racism the pattern by which environmental hazards are greatest for poor people, especially minorities

environmental sociology a subdiscipline of sociology that examines how human activities affect the physical environment and how the physical environment affects human activities

epidemiology the study of disease and disability patterns in a population

ethnicity a shared cultural heritage

ethnocentrism the use of one’s own culture as a yardstick for judging the ways of other individuals or societies, generally leading to a negative evaluation of their values, norms, and behaviours

ethnomethodology the study of how people use background assumptions to make sense out of life

Eurocentrism the dominance of European cultural patterns

euthanasia (mercy killing) assisting in the death of a person suffering from an incurable disease

evangelism an attempt to win converts

exchange mobility about the same numbers of people moving up and down the social class ladder, such that, on balance, the social class system shows little change

exogamy marriage between people of different social categories

experiment a research method used to investigate cause-and-effect relationships under highly controlled conditions

experimental group the group of subjects exposed to the independent variable

exponential growth curve a pattern of growth in which numbers double during approximately equal intervals, thus accelerating in the latter stages

expressive leader an individual who increases harmony and minimizes conflict in a group; also known as a socioemotional leader

extended family a nuclear family plus other relatives, such as grandparents, uncles, and aunts, who live together

F

face-saving behaviour techniques used to salvage a performance that is going sour

fad an unconventional social pattern that people embrace briefly but enthusiastically

faith belief anchored in conviction rather than scientific evidence

false consciousness Karl Marx’s term to refer to workers identifying with the interests of capitalists

family a social institution that unites individuals into cooperative groups that oversee the bearing and raising of children

family of orientation the family in which a person grows up

family of procreation the family formed when a couple’s first child is born

family unit a social group of two or more people, related by blood, marriage, or adoption, who usually live together

family violence emotional, physical, or sexual abuse of one family member by another

fashion a pattern of behaviour that catches people’s attention and lasts longer than a fad

fecundity the number of children women are theoretically capable of bearing

feminism the advocacy of social equality for women and men, in opposition to patriarchy and sexism

feminist theories all three types of feminist theories — Marxist, liberal, and radical — hold that women are oppressed by gender roles that are products of social, historical, and cultural factors

feminization of poverty the trend by which women represent an increasing proportion of the poor

feral children children assumed to have been raised by animals, in the wilderness isolated from other humans

fertility the incidence of childbearing in a country’s population

fertility rate the number of children the average woman bears

fiat money currency issued by a government that is not backed by stored value

folkways a society’s customs for routine, casual interaction. Less important than norms

formal operational stage Piaget’s term for the level of development in which individuals think abstractly and critically

formal organization a large secondary group that is organized to achieve specific goals

front stage where performances are given

functional analysis a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of various parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society’s equilibrium; also known as functionalism and structural functionalism

functional illiteracy a lack of reading and writing skills needed for everyday living

functional requisites the major tasks a society must fulfill if it is to survive

fundamentalism a conservative religious doctrine that opposes intellectualism and worldly accommodation in favour of restoring traditional, otherworldly spirituality

G

gatekeeping the process by which education opens and closes doors of opportunity; another term for the social placement function of education

Gemeinschaft a type of society dominated by intimate relationships; a community in which everyone knows everyone else and people share a sense of togetherness

gender the personal traits and social meanings that members of a society attach to being female and male

gender age the relative vales of men’s and women’s ages in a particular culture

gender identity traits that females and males, guided by their culture, incorporate into their personalities

gender role the behaviours and attitudes considered appropriate because one is a female or a male

gender socialization the ways society sets children on different courses in life because they are male or female

gender stratification the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and privilege between women and men

gender the social characteristics that a society considers proper for its males and females; masculinity or femininity

generalizability the extent to which the findings from one group (or sample) can be generalized or applied to other groups (or populations)

generalized other the norms, values, attitudes, and expectations of “people in general”; the child’s ability to take the role of the generalized other is a significant step in the development of a self

genetic predispositions inborn tendencies, in this context, to commit socially deviant acts

genocide the systematic annihilation or attempted annihilation of a people based on their presumed race or ethnicity

gentrification the displacement of the poor by the relatively affluent, who renovate the former’s homes

gerontocracy a form of social organization in which the elderly have the most wealth, power, and prestige

gerontology the study of aging and the elderly

Gesellschaft a type of society dominated by impersonal relationships, individual accomplishments, and self-interest

gestures the ways in which people use their bodies to communicate with one another

glass ceiling barriers to social advancement that many women face in some organizations

global economy economic activity spanning many nations of the world with little regard for national borders

global perspective the study of the larger world and our society’s place in it

global warming an increase in the earth’s temperature due to the greenhouse effect

globalization the extensive movement of capital and ideas between nations due to the expansion of capitalism

goal displacement replacement of one goal by another; in this context, the adoption of new goals by an organization; also known as goal replacement

gold standard paper money backed by gold

gossip rumour about people’s personal affairs

government a formal organization that directs the political life of a society

graying of Canada a term that refers to the rising proportion of older people as a percentage of the Canadian population

greenhouse effect a rise in the earth’s average temperature (global warming) due to an increasing concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

gross national product (GNP) the amount of goods and services produced by a nation

group dynamics the ways individuals affect groups and the ways groups influence individuals

group defined differently by various sociologists, but in a general sense, people who have something in common and who believe that what they have in common is significant; also called a social group

groupthink Irving Janis’ term for a narrowing of thought by a group of people, leading to the perception that there is only one correct answer, and a situation in which to even suggest alternatives becomes a sign of disloyalty

growth rate the net change in a population after adding births, subtracting deaths, and either adding or subtracting net migration

H

hate crime a criminal act against a person or a person’s property by an offender motivated by racial or other bias

Hawthorne effect a change in a subject’s behaviour caused simply by the awareness of being studied

health a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being

hermaphrodite a human being with some combination of female and male genitalia

heterosexism a view stigmatizing anyone who is not heterosexual as “queer”

heterosexuality sexual attraction to someone of the other sex

hidden curriculum the unwritten goals of schools, such as obedience to authority and conformity to cultural norms

high culture cultural patterns that distinguish a society’s elite

high-income countries industrialized nations in which most people enjoy material abundance

holistic health an approach to health care that emphasizes prevention of illness and takes into account a person’s entire physical and social environment

holistic medicine an approach to health care that emphasizes prevention of illness and takes into account a person’s entire physical and social environment

homogamy the tendency of people with similar characteristics to marry one another

homophobia the fear of close personal interaction with people thought to be gay, lesbian, or bisexual

homosexuality sexual attraction to someone of the same sex

horticulture a way of life based on the use of hand tools to raise crops

hospice a place, or services brought into someone’s home, for the purpose of bringing comfort and dignity to a dying person

household all people who occupy the same housing unit

human ecology Robert Park’s term for the relationship between people and their environment (natural resources such as land)

humanizing a work setting organizing a workplace in such a way that it develops rather than impedes human potential

humanizing organizations fostering a more democratic organizational atmosphere that recognizes and encourages the contributions of everyone

hunting and gathering a way of life based on the use of simple tools to hunt animals and gather vegetation

hypothesis a statement of the expected relationship between variables according to predictions from a theory

I

id Freud’s term for the human being’s basic drives

ideal culture (as opposed to real culture) social patterns mandated by cultural values and norms

ideal type Weber's term for a composite of characteristics based on many specific examples (“ideal” in this case means a description of the abstracted characteristics, not what one desires to exist)

ideology cultural beliefs that serve to justify social stratification

illegitimate opportunity structures opportunities for crime that are woven into the texture of life

imperialism a nation’s attempt to create an empire; its pursuit of unlimited geographical expansion

impression management the term used by Erving Goffman to describe people’s efforts to control the impressions others receive of them

incest taboo a cultural norm forbidding sexual relations or marriage between certain relatives

incest sexual relations between specified relatives, such as brothers and sisters or parents and children

income occupational wages or salaries and earnings from investments

indentured service a contractual system in which someone sells his or her body (services) for a specified period of time in an arrangement very close to slavery, except that it is voluntarily entered into

independent variable a factor that causes a change in another variable, called the dependent variable

individual discrimination the negative treatment of one person by another on the basis of that person’s perceived characteristics

inductive logical thought reasoning that transforms specific observations into general theory

industrialism technology that powers sophisticated machinery with advanced sources of energy

industry the production of goods using advanced sources of energy to drive large machinery

infant mortality rate the number of deaths among infants under one year of age for each 1000 live births in a given year

inflation an increase in prices

ingroup a social group commanding a member’s esteem and loyalty

institutional completeness the complexity of community organizations that meet the needs of members

institutional prejudice or discrimination negative treatment of a minority group that is built into a society’s institutions; also called systemic discrimination

institutionalized means approved ways of reaching cultural goals

instrumental leader an individual who tries to keep the group moving toward its goals; also known as a task-oriented leader

instrumental leadership group leadership that emphasizes the completion of tasks

intentional family people who declare themselves a family and treat one another as members of the same family; originated in the late twentieth century in response to the need for intimacy not met due to distance, divorce, and death

intergenerational social mobility the change that family members make in social class from one generation to the next

interlocking directorates the same people serving on the board of directors of several companies

internal colonialism the policy of economically exploiting minority groups

interpretive sociology the study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world

intersexed person a human being with some combination of female and male genitalia

interview a series of questions a researcher administers personally to respondents

intragenerational social mobility a change in social position occurring during a person’s lifetime

invasion-succession cycle the process of one group of people displacing a group whose racial-ethnic or social class characteristics differ from their own

invention the combination of existing elements and materials to form new ones; identified by William Ogburn as the first of three processes of social change

iron law of oligarchy Robert Michels’ phrase for the tendency of formal organizations to be dominated by a small, self-perpetuating elite

J

job ghettoes also known as pink ghettoes, employment areas dominated by women (and usually lower paid than areas dominated by men)

just-in-time (JIT) strategy a Japanese way of organizing production that minimizes inventory and storage at the production site — components are produced and moved between plants on a just-in-time basis

juvenile delinquency the violation of legal standards by the young

K

kaizen continuous improvement — production techniques are continuously evaluated in search of more efficient and improved methods

kinship a social bond, based on blood, marriage, or adoption, that joins individuals into families

L

labelling theory the view, developed by symbolic interactionists, that the labels people are given affect their own and others’ perceptions of them, thus channelling their behaviour into either social deviance or conformity

labour unions worker organizations that seek to improve wages and working conditions through various strategies, including negotiations and strikes

laissez-faire capitalism unrestrained manufacture and trade (loosely, “leave alone” capitalism)

laissez-faire leader an individual who leads by being highly permissive

language a system of symbols that can be combined in an infinite number of ways and can represent not only objects but also abstract thought

latent functions the unintended consequences of people’s actions that help keep a social system in equilibrium

leader someone who influences other people

leadership styles ways people express their leadership

leisure time not taken up by work or required activities such as eating, sleeping, commuting, child care, and housework

liberation theology a fusion of Christian principles with political activism, often Marxist in character

life course the sequence of events that we experience as we journey from birth to death

life expectancy the average life span of a society’s population

life span the maximum length of life of a species

living will a statement people in good health sign that clearly expresses their feelings about being kept alive on artificial life support systems

looking-glass self a term coined by Charles Horton Cooley to refer to the process by which our self develops through internalizing others’ reactions to us

low-income countries nations with little industrialization in which severe poverty is the rule

M

macro-level analysis an examination of large-scale patterns of society

macro-level orientation a focus on broad social structures that characterize society as a whole

macropolitics the exercise of large-scale power, the government being the most common example

macrosociology analysis of social life focusing on broad features of social structure, such as social class and the relationships of groups to one another; an approach usually used by functionalist and conflict theorists

mainstreaming helping people become part of the mainstream of society

Malthusian theorem an observation by Thomas Malthus that although the food supply increases only arithmetically (from 1 to 2 to 3 to 4 and so on), population grows geometrically (from 2 to 4 to 8 to 16 and so forth)

manifest function the intended consequences of people’s actions designed to help some part of a social system

manifest functions the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern

manner the attitudes people show as they play their roles

market any process of buying and selling; on a more formal level, the mechanism that establishes values for the exchange of goods and services

market competition the exchange of items between willing buyers and sellers

market force the law of supply and demand

market income wages or salary from work, earnings from investments and private pensions

market restraints laws and regulations that limit the capacity to manufacture and sell products

marriage a legally sanctioned relationship, involving economic cooperation as well as normative sexual activity and childbearing, that people expect to be enduring

Marxist political-economy model an analysis that explains politics in terms of the operation of a society’s economic system

mass behaviour collective behaviour among people dispersed over a wide geographical area

mass hysteria a form of dispersed collective behaviour by which people respond to a real or imagined event with irrational, frantic, and often self-destructive behaviour

mass media forms of impersonal communication, such as radio, newspapers, and television, directed to mass audiences

mass society a society in which industry and expanding bureaucracy have eroded traditional social ties

mass society theory an explanation for participation in social movements based on the assumption that such movements offer a sense of belonging to people who have weak social ties

master status a status that has exceptional importance for social identity, often shaping a person’s entire life

material culture the material objects that distinguish a group of people, such as their art, buildings, weapons, utensils, machines, hairstyles, clothing, and jewellery

matriarchy a form of social organization in which females dominate males

matrilineal (system of descent) a system of reckoning descent that counts only the mother’s side

matrilineal descent a system tracing kinship through women

matrilocality a residential pattern in which a married couple lives with or near the wife’s family

means of production the tools, factories, land, and investment capital used to produce wealth

measurement the procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case

mechanical solidarity Durkheim’s term for the unity that comes from being involved in similar occupations or activities

medicalization the transformation of something into a matter to be treated by physicians

medicalization of social deviance to make social deviance a medical matter, a symptom of some underlying illness that needs to be treated by physicians

medicine one of the major social institutions that sociologists study; a society’s organized ways of dealing with sickness and injury

medium of exchange the means by which people value goods and services in order to make an exchange, for example, currency, gold, and silver

megalopolis an urban area consisting of at least two metropolises and their many suburbs

meritocracy a form of social stratification in which all positions are awarded on the basis of merit

metropolis a large city that socially and economically dominates the surrounding area

micro-level analysis an examination of small-scale patterns of society

micro‑level orientation a concern with small‑scale patterns of social interaction in specific settings

microsociology analysis of social life focusing on social interaction; an approach usually used by symbolic interactionists

middle-income countries nations characterized by limited industrialization and moderate personal income

middle-range theories explanations of human behaviour that go beyond a particular observation or research but avoid sweeping generalizations that attempt to account for everything

migration the movement of people into and out of a specified territory

military-industrial complex the close association between the federal government, the military, and defence industries

milling a crowd standing or walking around as they talk excitedly about some event

minimax strategy Richard Berk’s term for the effort people make to minimize their costs and maximize their rewards

minority a category of people, distinguished by physical or cultural traits, that is socially disadvantaged

miscegenation biological reproduction by partners of different racial categories

mob a highly emotional crowd that pursues some violent or destructive goal

modernity social patterns linked to industrialization

modernization the process of social change initiated by industrialization. The process by which a Gemeinschaft society is transformed into a Gesellschaft society

modernization theory a model of economic and social development that explains global inequality in terms of technological and cultural differences among societies

monarchy a political system in which a single family rules from generation to generation

money any item (from seashells to gold) that serves as a medium of exchange; today, currency is the most common form

monogamy a form of marriage joining two partners

monolithic bias the tendency to ignore the diversity contained within a phenomenon and to focus, instead, on the most general exterior features. When applied to the family, the bias results in a failure to recognize that traditional notions of the family — male breadwinner, housewife, and biological children — have been supplanted by an amazing diversity of family forms and experiences

monolithic structure the representation of structure as homogeneous and undiversified. For example, if the family is represented as a monolithic structure, the representation ignores the complex diversity of types and forms incorporated into contemporary experiences of the family

monopoly domination of a market by a single producer

monotheism belief in a single divine power

moral community people united by their religious practices

moral panic a fear that grips large numbers of people that some evil group or behaviour threatens the well-being of society, followed by intense hostility, sometimes violence, toward those thought responsible

mores norms that are strictly enforced because they are thought essential to core values

mortality the incidence of death in a society’s population

multiculturalism an educational program recognizing the cultural diversity of Canada and promoting the equality of all cultural traditions

multinational corporations companies that operate across many national boundaries; also called transnational corporations

N

nationalism a strong identity with a nation, accompanied by the desire for that nation to be dominant

natural environment the earth’s surface and atmosphere, including living organisms, as well as the air, water, soil, and other resources necessary to sustain life

natural sciences the intellectual and academic disciplines designed to comprehend, explain, and predict events in our natural environment

negative sanction an expression of disapproval for breaking a norm, ranging from a mild, informal reaction such as a frown to a formal prison sentence or an execution

neocolonialism a new form of global power relationships that involves not direct political control but economic exploitation by multinational corporations

neolocality a residential pattern in which a married couple lives apart from the parents of both spouses

net migration rate the difference between the number of immigrants and emigrants per 1000 population

network a web of social ties that links people who identify and interact little with one another

networking the process of consciously using or cultivating networks for some gain

new social movements social movements with a new emphasis on the world, instead of on a condition in a specific country

new technology the emerging technologies of an era that have a significant impact on social life

noncentrist party a political party that represents less popular ideas

nonmaterial culture a group’s ways of thinking (including its beliefs, values, and other assumptions about the world) and doing (its common patterns of behaviour, including language and other forms of interaction)

nonverbal communication communication using body movements, gestures, and facial expressions rather than speech

norms rules and expectations by which a society guides the behaviour of its members

nuclear family (conjugal family) a family unit composed of one or two parents and their children

nuclear proliferation the acquisition of nuclear-weapons technology by more and more nations

O

objective method (of measuring social class) a system in which people are ranked according to objective criteria such as their wealth, power, and prestige

objectivity a state of personal neutrality in conducting research

official social deviance a society’s statistics on lawbreaking; its measures of crimes, victims, lawbreakers, and the outcomes of criminal investigations and sentencing

oligarchy a form of government in which power is held by a small group of individuals; the rule of the many by the few

oligopoly the control of an entire industry by several large companies

open-ended questions questions that respondents are able to answer in their own words

operational definitions the way in which a variable in a hypothesis is measured

operationalizing a variable specifying exactly what one intends to measure in assigning a value to a variable

organic solidarity Durkheim’s term for the interdependence that results from people needing others to fulfill their jobs; solidarity based on the interdependence brought about by the division of labour

organizational environment a range of factors external to an organization that affects its operation

organized crime a business supplying illegal goods or services

other-directedness a receptiveness to the latest trends and fashions, often expressed in the practice of imitating others

outgroup a social group towards which one feels competition or opposition

P

panic a form of localized collective behaviour by which people react to a threat or other stimulus with irrational, frantic, and often self-destructive behaviour

participant observation a research method by which investigators systematically observe people while joining in their routine activities

participant observation (or fieldwork) research in which the researcher participates in a research setting while observing what is happening in that setting

pastoralism a way of life based on the domestication of animals

patriarchy a form of social organization in which males dominate females

patrilineal (system of descent) a system of reckoning descent that counts only the father’s side

patrilocality a residential pattern in which a married couple lives with or near the husband’s family

patterns recurring characteristics or events

peer group a social group whose members have interests, social position, and age in common

personal identity kit items people use to decorate their bodies

personal space the surrounding area over which a person makes some claim to privacy

personality a person’s fairly consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting

personality disorders the view that a personality disturbance of some sort causes an individual to violate social norms

Peter principle a bureaucratic “law” according to which the members of an organization are promoted for good work until they reach their level of incompetence, the level at which they can no longer do good work

pink ghettoes also knows as job ghettoes, employment areas dominated by women (and usually lower paid than areas dominated by men)

plea bargaining a legal negotiation in which the prosecution reduces a defendant’s charge in exchange for a guilty plea

pluralism the diffusion of power among many interest groups, preventing any single group from gaining control of the government

pluralist model an analysis of politics that view power as dispersed among many competing interest groups

pluralistic society a society made up of many different groups

political parties organizations operating within the political system that seek control of the government

political revolution the overthrow of one political system in order to establish another

political socialization the way in which young people are inculcated with beliefs, ideas, and values that embrace the civil order through the education system

politics the institutionalized system by which a society distributes power, sets the society’s agenda, and makes decisions

polyandry a marriage in which a woman has more than one husband

polygamy a form of marriage uniting three or more people

polygyny a marriage in which a man has more than one wife

polytheism belief in many gods

popular culture cultural patterns that are widespread throughout society

population the people who are the focus of research

population shrinkage the process by which a country’s population becomes smaller because its birth rate and immigration are too low to replace those who die and emigrate

population transfer involuntary movement of a minority group

population a target group to be studied

pornography sexually explicit material that causes sexual arousal

positive sanction a reward or positive reaction for approved behaviour, for conformity

positivism a means to understand the world based on science

postindustrial economy a productive system based on service work and extensive use of information technology

postindustrialism technology that supports an information-based economy

postmodern society another term for postindustrial society; its chief characteristic is the use of tools that extend the human abilities to gather and analyze information, communicate, and travel

postmodernity social patterns characteristic of post-industrial societies.

power the ability to carry out one’s will, even over the resistance of others

power elite C. Wright Mills’ term for those who rule the country: the top people in the leading corporations, the most powerful generals and admirals of the armed forces, and certain elite politicians, who make the nation’s major decisions

power-elite model an analysis of politics that views power as concentrated among the rich

prejudice a rigid and irrational generalization about an entire category of people

preoperational stage Piaget’s term for the level of development in which individuals first use language and other symbols

presentation of self Goffman’s term for the ways in which individuals, in various settings, try to create specific impressions in the minds of others

prestige respect or regard

primary group a group characterized by intimate, long-term, face-to-face association and cooperation

primary labour market occupations that provide extensive benefits to workers

primary sector the part of the economy that generates raw materials directly from the natural environment

primary sex characteristics the genitals, organs used for reproduction

primary social deviance Edwin Lemert’s term for acts of social deviance that have little effect on the self-concept

principles of scientific management also referred to as Taylorism, scientific management sought to reduce waste and inefficiency in production by measuring every movement and regulating every step of the work process

private ownership of the means of production the ownership of machines and factories by individuals who decide what shall be produced

proactive social movement a social movement that promotes some social change

profane Durkheim’s term for common elements of everyday life

profession (as opposed to a job) an occupation characterized by rigorous education, a theoretical perspective, self-regulation, authority over clients, and a professional culture that stresses service to society

proletariat Karl Marx’s term for the exploited class, the mass of workers who do not own the means of production

propaganda in its broad sense, the presentation of information in the attempt to influence people; in its narrow sense, one-sided information used to try to influence people

property crimes crimes that involve theft of property belonging to others

proportional representation an electoral system in which seats in a legislature are divided according to the proportion of votes each political party receives

prostitution the selling of sexual services

Protestant ethic Weber’s term to describe the ideal of a self-denying, highly moral life, accompanied by hard work and frugality

public opinion widespread attitudes about controversial issues

public a dispersed group of people who usually have an interest in the issue on which a social movement focuses; the sympathetic and hostile publics have such an interest, but a third public is either unaware of the issue or indifferent to it

pure or basic sociology sociological research whose only purpose is to make discoveries about life in human groups, not to make changes in those groups

Q

qualitative or field interview an interview in which the researcher is a participant in a conversation with the subject being interviewed

qualitative research methods research in which emphasis is placed on observing, describing, and interpreting people’s behaviour

quality circles refer to the involvement of rank-and-file workers in detecting and correcting defects and inefficiencies in products and services

quantitative research methods research in which emphasis is placed on precise measurement, numbers, and statistics

queer theory a growing body of knowledge that challenges an allegedly heterosexual bias in sociology

questionnaire a series of written questions a researcher supplies to subjects requesting their responses

quiet revolution the fundamental changes in society that occur as a result of vast numbers of women entering the work force

R

race a socially constructed category composed of men and women who share biologically transmitted traits that members of a society deem socially significant

racism the belief that one racial category is innately superior or inferior to another

rain forests regions of dense forestation, most of which circle the globe close to the equator

random sample a sample in which everyone in the target population has the same chance of being included in the study

rapport a feeling of trust between researchers and subjects

rationality the acceptance of rules, efficiency, and practical results as the right way to approach human affairs

rationalization Max Weber’s term for the change from tradition to rationality as the dominant mode of human thought

rational-legal authority authority based on law or written rules and regulations; also called bureaucratic authority

reactive social movement a social movement that resists some social change

real culture (as opposed to ideal culture) actual social patterns that only approximate cultural expectations

redemptive social movement a social movement that seeks to change people totally

reference group a social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations or decisions

reformative social movement a social movement that seeks to change only particular aspects of society

reformists a category of study of feminist spirituality represented by those who advocate revealing the “liberating core” of religious teachings with female imagery and exposing and refusing to accept rituals that are clearly sexist

rehabilitation a program for reforming the offender to preclude subsequent offences

reincarnation in Hinduism and Buddhism, the return of the soul after death in a different form

rejectionists a category of study of feminist spirituality represented by those who judge the traditional teachings to be hopelessly sexist and have left it to establish a new spiritual tradition

relative deprivation a perceived disadvantage arising from some specific comparison

relative poverty the deprivation of some people in relation to those who have more

reliability the quality of consistent measurement

religion according to Durkheim, beliefs and practices that separate the profane from the sacred and unite its adherents into a moral community

religiosity the importance of religion in a person’s life

religious fundamentalism a conservative religious doctrine that opposes intellectualism and worldly accommodation in favour of restoring traditional, otherworldly religion

replication repetition of research by other investigators

representative democracy a form of democracy in which voters elect representatives to govern and make decisions on their behalf

reputational method (of measuring social class) a system in which people who are familiar with the reputations of others are asked to identify their social class

research method (or research design) one of seven procedures sociologists use to collect data: surveys, participant observation, qualitative interviews, secondary analysis, documents, unobtrusive measures, and experiments

reserve labour force the unemployed; unemployed workers are thought of as being “in reserve” — capitalists take them “out of reserve” (put them back to work) during times of high production and then lay them off (put them back in reserve) when they are no longer needed

resocialization deliberate socialization intended to radically alter an individual’s personality

resource mobilization a theory that social movements succeed or fail on the basis of their ability to mobilize resources such as time, money, and people’s skills

respondents people who respond to a survey, either in interviews or by self-administered questionnaires

retribution moral vengeance by which society inflicts suffering on an offender comparable to that caused by the offence

retrospective labelling the interpretation of someone’s past consistent with present deviance

revisionists a category of study of feminist spirituality represented by those who believe that the basic message of the major religions is liberating

revolution armed resistance designed to overthrow a government

revolutionaries a category of study of feminist spirituality represented by those who seek to change the established orthodoxy by importing language, images, and rituals from other traditions

riot violent crowd behaviour aimed against people and property

rituals ceremonies or repetitive practices; in this context, religious observances or rites, often intended to evoke awe for the sacred

role normative patterns of behaviour for those holding a particular status

role conflict conflicts that someone feels between roles because the expectations attached to one role are incompatible with the expectations of another role

role extension the incorporation of additional activities into a role

role performance the ways in which someone performs a role within the limits that the role provides; showing a particular “style” or “personality”

role set a number of roles attached to a single status

role strain incompatibility among roles corresponding to a single status

role the behaviours, obligations, and privileges attached to a status

romantic love feelings of erotic attraction accompanied by an idealization of the other

routinization of charisma the transformation of charismatic authority into some combination of traditional and bureaucratic authority

ruling class another term for the power elite

rumour unsubstantiated information spread informally, often by word of mouth

S

sacred Durkheim’s term for things set apart or forbidden that inspire fear, awe, reverence, or deep respect

sample a part of a population that represents the whole

sanctions expressions of approval or disapproval given to people for upholding or violating norms

Sapir‑Whorf thesis the assertion that people perceive the world only in terms of the symbols contained in their language

scapegoat a person or category of people, typically with little power, whom people unfairly blame for their own troubles

schooling formal instruction under the direction of specially trained teachers

science a logical system that bases knowledge on direct, systematic observation

scientific management Frederick Taylor’s term for applying scientific principles to the operation of a business or other large organization

scientific method the use of objective, systematic observations to test theories

secondary analysis a research method in which a researcher utilizes data collected by others

secondary group compared with a primary group, a larger, relatively temporary, more anonymous, formal, and impersonal group based on some interest or activity, whose members are likely to interact on the basis of specific roles

secondary labour market jobs that provide minimal benefits to workers

secondary sector the part of the economy that transforms raw materials into manufactured goods

secondary sex characteristics bodily differences, apart from the genitals, that distinguish biologically mature females and males

secondary social deviance Edwin Lemert’s term for acts of social deviance incorporated into the self-concept, around which an individual orients his or her behaviour

sect a type of religious organization that stands apart from the larger society

secularization the historical decline in the importance of the supernatural and the sacred

segregation the physical and social separation of categories of people

selective perception seeing certain features of an object or situation, but remaining blind to others

self George Herbert Mead’s term for that part of an individual’s personality composed of self-awareness and self-image

self-administered questionnaires questionnaires filled out by respondents

self-fulfilling prophecy Robert Merton’s term for an originally false assertion that becomes true simply because it was predicted

sensorimotor stage Piaget’s term for the level of development in which individuals experience the world only through sensory contact

sex the biological distinction between females and males

sex ratio the number of males for every 100 females in a given population

sex typing the association of behaviours with one sex or the other

sexism the belief that one sex is innately superior to the other

sexual harassment comments, physical contact, or gestures of a sexual nature that are deliberate, repeated, and unwelcome

sexual orientation an individual’s preference in terms of sexual partners: same sex, other sex, either sex, neither sex

shaman the healing specialist of a preliterate tribe who attempts to control the spirits thought to cause a disease or injury; commonly called a witch doctor

sick role a social role that excuses people from normal obligations because they are sick or injured, while at the same time expecting them to seek competent help and cooperate in getting well

significant other an individual who significantly influences someone else’s life

sign-vehicles the term used by Erving Goffman to refer to how people use social setting, appearance, and manner to communicate information about the self

slavery a form of social stratification in which some people own other people

small group a group small enough for everyone to interact directly with all the other members

social change the transformation of culture and social institutions over time

social character personality patterns common to members of a particular society

social class a large number of people with similar amounts of income and education who work at jobs roughly comparable in prestige; according to Weber, a large group of people who rank closely to one another in wealth, power, and prestige; according to Marx, one of two groups: capitalists who own the means of production or workers who sell their labour

social cohesion the degree to which members of a group or a society feel united by shared values and other social bonds

social conflict struggle between segments of society over valued resources

social construction of reality the process by which people use their background assumptions and life experiences to define what is real for them

social construction of technology the view (opposed to technological determinism) that culture (people’s values and special interests) shapes the use and development of technology

social control attempts by society to regulate the thought and behaviour of individuals

social deviance the violation of rules or norms

social dysfunction the undesirable consequences of any social pattern for the operation of society

social environment the entire human environment, including direct contact with others

social epidemiology the study of how health and disease are distributed throughout a society’s population

social facts Durkheim’s term for the patterns of behaviour that characterize a social group

social function the consequences of any social pattern for the operation of society as a whole

social group two or more people who identify and interact with one another

social inequality a social condition in which privileges and obligations are given to some but denied to others

social institutions the organized, usual, or standard ways by which society meets its basic needs

social integration the degree to which people feel a part of social groups

social interaction the process by which people act and react in relation to others

social location the group memberships that people have because of their location in history and society

social mobility movement up or down the social-class ladder

social movement a large group of people who are organized to promote or resist social change

social movement organization an organization developed to further the goals of a social movement

social network the social ties radiating outward from the self that link people together

social order a group’s usual and customary social arrangements, on which its members depend and on which they base their lives

social placement a function of education that funnels people into a society’s various positions

social protection rendering an offender incapable of further offences either temporarily through incarceration or permanently by execution

social sciences the intellectual and academic disciplines designed to understand the social world objectively by means of controlled and repeated observations

social setting the place where the action of everyday life unfolds

social stratification the division of large numbers of people into layers according to their relative power, property, and prestige; applies both to nations and to people within a nation, society, or other group

social structure the framework that surrounds us, consisting of the relationship of people and groups to one another, which gives direction to and sets limits on behaviour

social-conflict paradigm a framework for building theory that envisions society as an arena of inequality generating conflict and change

socialism an economic system in which natural resources and the means of producing goods and services are collectively owned

socialization the process by which people learn the characteristics of their group: the attitudes, values, and actions thought appropriate for them

socialized health care a health care system in which the government owns and operates most medical facilities and employs most physicians.

society a term used by sociologists to refer to a group of people who share a culture and a territory

sociobiology a theoretical paradigm that explores ways in which our biology affects how humans create culture

sociocultural evolution the process of change that results from a society’s gaining new information, particularly technology

socioeconomic status (SES) a composite ranking based on various dimensions of social inequality

sociological perspective an approach to understanding human behaviour that entails placing it within its broader social context

sociology the systematic study of human society

spirit of capitalism Weber’s term for the desire to accumulate capital as a duty — not to spend it, but as an end in itself — and to constantly reinvest it

spurious correlation an apparent, although false, association between two (or more) variables caused by some other variable

state capitalism an economic and political system in which companies are privately owned although they cooperate closely with the government

state church a church formally allied with the state

state terrorism the use of violence, generally without support of law, by a government or its agents

state a political entity that claims monopoly on the use of violence in some particular territory; commonly known as a country

status social ranking; the position someone occupies in society or a social group

status consistency the degree of consistency of a person’s social standing across various dimensions of social inequality

status inconsistency (or discrepancy) ranking high on some dimensions of social class and low on others; a contradiction or mismatch between statuses

status set all the statuses a person holds at a given time

status symbols items used to identify a status

stereotype prejudicial views or descriptions of some categories of people

stigma a powerfully negative social label that radically changes a person’s self-concept and social identity

stockholders’ revolt the refusal of a corporation’s stockholders to rubber-stamp decisions made by its managers

stored value the backing of a currency by goods that are stored and held in reserve

strain theory Robert Merton’s term for the strain engendered when a society socializes large numbers of people to desire a cultural goal (such as success) but withholds from many the approved means to reach that goal; one adaptation to the strain is crime, the choice of an innovative means (one outside the approved system) to attain the cultural goal

stratified random sample a sample of specific subgroups of the target population in which everyone in the subgroups has an equal chance of being included in the study

streaming the assigning of students to different types of educational programs

street crime crimes such as mugging, rape, and burglary

structural social mobility a shift in the social position of a large number of people due to changes in society itself

structural-functional paradigm a framework for building theory that envisions society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability

structured conversation see qualitative or field interview

structured interviews interviews that use closed-ended questions

subculture the values and related behaviours of a group that distinguish its members from the larger culture; a world within a world

subjective meanings the meanings that people give their own behaviour

subjective method (of measuring social class) a system in which people are asked to state the social class to which they belong

subsistence economy a type of economy in which human groups live off the land with little or no surplus

suburbanization the movement from the city to the suburbs

suburbs urban areas beyond the political boundaries of a city

superego Freud’s term for the presence of culture within the individual in the form of internalized values and norms

survey a research method in which participants respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or an interview

sustainable environment a world system that takes into account the limits of the environment, produces enough material goods for everyone’s needs, and leaves a heritage of a sound environment for the next generation

symbol anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share culture

symbolic culture another term for nonmaterial culture

symbolic interactionism a theoretical perspective in which society is viewed as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another

symbolic-interaction paradigm a theoretical framework that envisions society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals

system of descent how kinship is traced over the generations

T

taboo a norm so strong that it brings revulsion if violated

taking the role of the other putting oneself in someone else’s shoes; understanding how someone else feels and thinks and thus anticipating how that person will act

teamwork the collaboration of two or more persons interested in the success of a performance to manage impressions jointly

techniques of neutralization ways of thinking or rationalizing that help people deflect society’s norms

technological determinism the view that technology determines culture, that technology takes on a life of its own and forces human behaviour to follow

technology often defined as the applications of science, but can be conceptualized as tools (items used to accomplish tasks) and the skills or procedures necessary to make and use those tools

terrorism random acts of violence or the threat of such violence employed by an individual or group as a political strategy

tertiary sector that part of the economy which consists of service-oriented occupations

tertiary social deviance the normalizing of behaviour considered socially deviant by mainstream society; relabelling the behaviour as non-deviant

theoretical paradigm a set of fundamental assumptions that guides thinking and research

theory a general statement about how some parts of the world fit together and how they work; an explanation of how two or more facts are related to one another

Thomas theorem William I. Thomas’s classic formulation of the definition of the situation: “If people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.”

timetables the signals societies use to inform their members that they are old; these timetables vary around the world

tool an object created or modified for a specific purpose

total institution a place in which people are cut off from the rest of society and are almost totally controlled by the officials who run the place

totalitarianism a highly centralized political system that extensively regulates people’s lives

totem an object in the natural world collectively defined as sacred

tracking the sorting of students into different educational programs on the basis of real or perceived abilities

tradition sentiments and beliefs about the world that are passed from generation to generation

traditional authority power legitimized through respect for long-established cultural patterns

traditional orientation the idea — characteristic of tribal, peasant, and feudal societies — that the past is the best guide for the present

tradition‑directedness rigid conformity to time‑honoured ways of living

transformative social movement a social movement that seeks to change society totally

transsexuals people who feel they are one sex even though biologically they are the other

triad a social group with three members

U

underclass a small group of people for whom poverty persists year after year and across generations

underemployment the condition of having to work at a job beneath one’s level of training and abilities, or of being able to find only part-time work

underground economy exchanges of goods and services that are not reported to the government and thereby escape taxation

unitary state form of government in which all power resides with the central government

universal citizenship the idea that everyone has the same basic rights by virtue of being born in a country (or by immigrating and becoming a naturalized citizen)

unobtrusive measures various ways of observing people who do not know they are being studied

unstructured interviews interviews that use open-ended questions

upward social mobility movement up the social-class ladder

urban ecology the study of the link between the physical and social dimensions of cities

urban legend a story with an ironic twist that sounds realistic but is false

urbanization the process by which an increasing proportion of a population lives in cities

V

validity the extent to which an operational definition measures what was intended

value cluster a series of interrelated values that together form a larger whole

value contradictions values that contradict one another; to follow the one means to come into conflict with the other

value-free an ideal condition in which a sociologist’s personal values or biases do not influence social research

values the standards by which people define what is desirable or undesirable, good or bad, beautiful or ugly; attitudes about the way the world ought to be

variable a factor or concept thought to be significant for human behaviour, which varies from one case to another

Verstehen a German word used by Weber that is perhaps best understood as “to have insight into someone’s situation”

victimless crimes violations of law in which there is no readily apparent victim

violent crimes crimes against people that involve violence or the threat of violence

voluntary association a group made up of volunteers who have organized on the basis of some mutual interest

W

war organized, armed conflict among the people of various societies, directed by their governments

wealth the total amount of money and other assets, minus outstanding debts, that a person or family controls

welfare (state) capitalism an economic system in which individuals own the means of production, but the state regulates many economic activities for the welfare of the population

welfare state a range of government agencies and programs that provide benefits to the population

white-collar crime Edwin Sutherland’s term for crimes committed by people of respectable and high social status in the course of their occupations; for example, bribery of public officials, securities violations, embezzlement, false advertising, and price-fixing

white-collar occupation higher-prestige work that involves mostly mental activity

working class those who sell their labour to the capitalist class

world system economic and political connections that tie the world’s countries together

Z

zero population growth the level of reproduction that maintains population at a steady state